The Xinjiang Kalmyks, also known as Xinjiang Oirats or Torghuts, are a Mongol ethnic group residing primarily in the northern part of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in China. They are descendants of the Oirat Mongols who originally inhabited Dzungaria (northern Xinjiang) and those who returned from the Volga region in Russia during the 1771 migration. Speaking the Oirat dialect and practicing Tibetan Buddhism, they form part of China's recognized Mongol minority, with a population estimated at around 150,000–170,000 in the early 21st century. Their history is marked by nomadic empires, devastating conquests, migrations, and cultural resilience.[0][1][2][3]
Origins and the Dzungar Khanate
The Kalmyks trace their roots to the Oirat Mongols, a western branch of the Mongolian language group, who have inhabited northern Xinjiang (Dzungaria) since at least the 15th century. They formed the "Dörben Oirat" (Four Allies) confederation, which evolved into the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th century. This nomadic empire controlled Dzungaria and extended influence over the Tarim Basin, ruling over sedentary Muslim Uyghur populations through puppet rulers. The Khanate was a significant power, engaging in trade along the Silk Road and conflicts with neighboring empires.[1][2][4]
Under leaders like Galdan Khan, the Dzungars intervened in Tibetan and Central Asian affairs, including supporting the 5th Dalai Lama in the late 17th century. They extracted heavy taxes from the Tarim Basin cities and maintained a Buddhist nomadic lifestyle distinct from the Islamic sedentary communities they governed.[1][5]
Qing Conquest and Genocide
In the mid-18th century, the Qing dynasty launched campaigns against the Dzungar Khanate, culminating in the Dzungar–Qing Wars (1687–1757). Weakened by internal strife and a smallpox epidemic, the Dzungars were defeated by Qing forces under the Qianlong Emperor. Between 1755 and 1759, the Qing conquered Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin, leading to the Dzungar genocide. Up to 80% of the Oirat population—estimated at 600,000 to 1 million—was killed or died from disease, depopulating the region. The Qing resettled other ethnic groups, including Han Chinese, Uyghurs, and Manchus, to colonize the area, which was renamed Xinjiang Province in 1884.[1][2][6]
The 1771 Return Migration
In 1771, facing Russian oppression, including forced Christianization and land restrictions, Ubashi Khan led approximately 200,000 Kalmyks from the Volga region back to their ancestral homeland in Dzungaria. This mass exodus, known as the Kalmyk Return or Great Flight, was arduous, with raids by Kazakhs, starvation, and disease claiming most lives—only about 70,000–96,000 survivors reached Qing territory after eight months. The Qing, cautious of potential unrest, resettled the survivors in Dzungaria, dividing them into "Old Torghuts" (original inhabitants) and "New Torghuts" (returnees), integrating them into the banner system as border guards without reviving Oirat autonomy.[0][3][7][8]
Settlement and Integration under Qing
The returning Kalmyks were settled in areas like the Ili Valley, Bortala, and Bayingolin, where they resumed nomadic herding. The Qing administration incorporated them into military banners, preventing large-scale unification. This period marked the absorption of Oirats into the Qing multi-ethnic empire, with limited autonomy but preservation of Buddhist practices and language.[2][1]
Modern History and Current Status
Today, Xinjiang Kalmyks live mainly in Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, and Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture. Their population, part of China's Mongol minority, is around 152,000–172,000. They maintain traditional occupations like animal husbandry, speak Oirat dialects, and use the Todo Bichig script in education and media. Despite linguistic influences from surrounding groups and Mandarin, cultural elements like the Jangar epic and folk traditions persist.[2][9][10]