The Last Great Migration of Nomads, or the "Great Exodus," was the mass migration of Volga Kalmyks, predominantly Torghuts, from the Russian Empire to Dzungaria in 1771.[3][0] In 1771, the Kalmyks experienced two important events: the Exodus of Kalmyks from the banks of the Yaik and Volga Rivers to their historical homeland in Dzungaria and the abolition of the Kalmyk Khanate.[10][39] This migration began on January 5 and was caused by a combination of factors, including restrictions on tsarist power and land colonization.[9][2]

In 1771, the Kalmyk people, a Mongol ethnic group that had settled along the Volga River in Russia since the early 17th century, experienced a major historical event known as the Kalmyk Exodus or Migration.[0][3] This involved a large-scale attempt by a significant portion of the population to return to their ancestral homeland in Dzungaria (modern-day northwestern China and parts of Kazakhstan and Mongolia), which was then under Qing dynasty control.[3][33]

The Departure of the Kalmyks and Its Causes

The migration was driven by growing dissatisfaction with Russian imperial policies under Empress Catherine II.[20][22] Key factors included:

  • Increasing oppression and interference by the Tsarist administration, such as forced Christianization efforts, restrictions on nomadic lifestyles, and exploitation through military conscription for Russian wars.[20][49]
  • Loss of autonomy, as the Russian government had been eroding the power of the Kalmyk Khanate over decades, including appointing puppet leaders and settling Cossacks on Kalmyk lands.[49][10]
  • Economic hardships, including heavy taxation and competition for grazing lands.[20][49]
  • Internal leadership decisions, with Ubashi Khan (the last Kalmyk Khan and great-grandson of Ayuka Khan) seeking to restore independence by relocating to Qing territory, where the Kalmyks hoped for better treatment under Manchu rule.[49][3]
  • The restriction of the khan's power by the tsarist state.[20][49]
  • The reduction of pastures due to the colonization of lands by Russian landowners and peasants.[49][10]
  • Interference by the tsarist administration in Kalmyk affairs.[20][49]
  • The economic crisis, exacerbated by the loss of livestock in the winter of 1767-1768 and the decree of 1768 prohibiting the sale of grain to Kalmyks in unauthorized locations.[20][1]

Preparations for the departure to Dzungaria were conducted in secret, known only to a small circle of trusted individuals.[49][2] On January 5, 1771, the noyons, led by the young governor of the Kalmyk Khanate, Ubashi, rallied the uluses (regions) roaming along the left bank of the Volga and began their journey to their historical homeland.[49][29]

The exodus began in January 1771, after Ubashi Khan consulted the Dalai Lama for an auspicious departure date based on astrological charts.[49][1] However, due to the weakening ice on the frozen Volga River, only the Kalmyks on the eastern (left) bank could cross and depart—those on the western (right) bank were forced to remain behind.[49][2]

  • Scale: Approximately 170,000–200,000 people (primarily from the Torghut tribe, along with most Khoshuts, Choros, and Khoits) set out, accompanied by an estimated 6 million livestock (including cattle, sheep, horses, camels, and dogs).[29][33][49] The Dörbet tribe largely chose not to participate.[49] Historians estimate more than 70% of the Kalmyks, or around 30,909 tents (households), left Russia.[49][0] Some researchers believe only 11,198 tents remained within Russia, while others estimate 13,000.[0][49]
  • Journey: The migrants traveled eastward across harsh steppes, facing severe challenges such as extreme cold, starvation, thirst, disease, and raids by Kazakh and other nomadic groups.[33][49] The route covered thousands of miles through arid and hostile terrain.[2][33]
  • Outcomes: The journey was catastrophic, with massive losses—only about 66,000–75,000 survivors (roughly one-third) reached Dzungaria after eight months.[30][33][49] The survivors were resettled by the Qing as the 'Torghuts' (divided into 'Old' and 'New' groups over time) and integrated into the empire's border defenses.[49][33]

Consequences

No more than 70,000-75,000 of the original 140,000-170,000 who left reached Dzungaria.[33][30] The Kalmyks who remained in Russia lost their statehood.[46][4]

Abolition of the Kalmyk Khanate

Date: October 19, 1771.[42][43][47][48]

Reasons: Occurred after the migration of the main population.[49][10]

Measures:

  • The titles of khans and governors were abolished.[49][10]
  • The territory of the khanate was incorporated into the Astrakhan Governorate.[49][4]
  • A special "Kalmyk Affairs Expedition" was established.[48][49]

The Russian government, unable to prevent the migration despite military efforts, responded by abolishing the Kalmyk Khanate in October 1771.[10][39] All remaining Kalmyks (estimated at around 10,000–15,000 households, mainly from the right bank and those who turned back) were placed under direct control of the Astrakhan governor.[49][0] The title of Khan was eliminated, and the highest native authority became the Vice-Khan, appointed by Russia.[49][10] This group formed the basis of the modern Kalmyk population in the Republic of Kalmykia, Russia, where they preserved their Buddhist faith and cultural identity despite further Russification pressures.[0][7]

This event marked the end of the independent Kalmyk Khanate and highlighted the tensions between nomadic peoples and expanding empires in the 18th century.[4][9]